Yoga
in India
Yoga
is a family of ancient
spiritual practices
originating in India.
It is one of the six
schools of Hindu philosophy,
in which it is often
paired with Samkhya,
and they are referred
together as the Samkhya-Yoga
school. Today in India
and across the World,
Yoga is a vibrant
living tradition and
is seen as a means
to both physical health
and spiritual mastery.
Karma Yoga (yoga of
Action), Jnana Yoga
(yoga of Knowledge),
Bhakti Yoga (yoga
of Devotion), and
Raja Yoga (yoga of
Meditation) are considered
the four main paths
of Yoga. Outside India,
Yoga has become primarily
associated with the
practice of asanas
(postures) of Hatha
Yoga (see Yoga as
exercise), a system
of Yoga that developed
from - and in order
to prepare students
for the practice of
- Raja Yoga. Yoga
as a means of spiritual
attainment is central
to Hinduism (including
Vedanta schools),
Buddhism, and Jainism,
and has influenced
other religious and
spiritual practices
throughout the world.
Hindu texts establishing
the basis for yoga
include the Upanishads,
the Bhagavad Gita,
the Yoga Sutras of
Patanjali, the Hatha
Yoga Pradipika and
many others.
Roots
of Yoga
The
word "yoga"
derives from the Sanskrit
root yuj ("to yoke");
which is cognate to
modern English "yoke",
"jugal" and
"jugum" in
Latin. All derive from
the Proto-Indo-European
root *yeug- meaning
"to join"
or "unite".
It is generally translated
as "union of the
individual atma (loosely
translated to mean soul)
with Paramatma, the
universal soul."
This may be understood
as union with the Divine
by integration of body,
mind, and spirit. A
committed practitioner
of yoga is referred
to as a yogi or yogin
(masculine), or yogini
(feminine). These designations
are for serious practitioners,
who have already made
considerable progress
along the path towards
yoga. Images of a meditating
yogi from the Indus
Valley Civilization
are thought to be 6
to 7 thousand years
old. The earliest written
accounts of yoga appear
in the Rig Veda, which
began to be codified
between 1500 BC and
1200 BC but had been
orally transmitted for
at least a millennium
prior to this. The first
quasi-rational, full
description of the principles
and goals of yoga is
to be found in the Upanisads,
thought to have been
composed between 800
and 300 BC. The Upanisads
are also called Vedanta
since they constitute
the end or conclusion
of the Vedas (the traditional
body of spiritual wisdom).
In the Upanisads, the
older practice of offering
sacrifices and ceremonies
to appease external
gods gives way instead
to a new understanding
that man can, by means
of an inner sacrifice,
become one with the
Supreme Being (referred
to as Brahman or Mahatman)
-- through moral culture,
restraint and training
of the mind.
Bhagavad
Gita
The
Bhagavad Gita ('Song
of the Lord') is thought
to have been written
some time between 400
and 100 BC. Technically
it is not an individual
work - it is a section
of the epic Mahabharata
- but it is frequently
published and discussed
as if it were. To this
day, it remains the
single most influential
and popular work of
Hindu philosophy ever
written, and it is also
the first work devoted
explicitly and wholly
to yoga. Its narrative
concerns a moral dilemma
faced by Prince Arjuna,
who is advised by Lord
Krishna as to the best
course of action regarding
how he should regain
his lost kingdom. The
first and foremost lesson
of the Bhagavad Gita
is regarding the importance
of action - that we
have a moral imperative
to act, and that by
implication non-action
is an immoral choice
when faced with a dilemma.
But this action should
always be conducted
without selfish motivation.
Thus the principle of
Karma Yoga, of selfless
action. It distinguishes
several types of yoga
according to what is
most appropriate for
the different nature
of people, such that
a devoted person will
be most suited to the
duty of Bhakti yoga,
an intellectual person
to Jnana yoga and so
on
The
Bhagavad Gita talks
of four branches of
yoga:
Karma
yoga
(sometimes called Kriya
yoga), the yoga of action
in the world "
With the body, with
the mind, with the intellect,
even merely with the
senses, the yogins perform
action toward self-purification,
having abandoned attachment.
He who is disciplined
in yoga, having abandoned
the fruit of action,
attains steady peace..
Concept
The word Karma is derived
from the Sanskrit Kri,
meaning 'to do', in
its most basic sense
karma simply means action,
and yoga translates
to union. Thus Karma
yoga literally translates
to the path of union
through action. It is
described as a way of
acting, thinking and
willing by which one
acts in accordance with
one's duty (dharma)
without consideration
of personal selfish
desires, likes or dislikes.
Acting without being
attached to the fruits
of one's deeds.
Jnana
yoga,
the yoga of knowledge
and intellectual endeavor
" When he perceives
the various states of
being as resting in
the One, and from That
alone spreading out,
then he attains Brahman.
They who know, through
the eye of knowledge,
the distinction between
the field and the knower
of the field, as well
as the liberation of
beings from material
nature, go to the Supreme."
Bhakti
yoga,
the yoga of devotion
to a deity "....
those who, renouncing
all actions in Me, and
regarding Me as the
Supreme, worship me...
of those whose thoughts
have entered into Me,
I am soon the deliverer
from the ocean of death
and transmigration,
Arjuna. Keep your mind
on Me alone, your intellect
on Me. Thus you shall
dwell in me hereafter.
And he who serves me
with the yoga of unswerving
devotion, transcending
these qualities [binary
opposites, like good
and evil, pain and pleasure]
is ready for absorption
in Brahman."
The
Philosophy of Bhakti
Bhakti is the Sanskrit
term that signifies
a blissful, selfless
and overwhelming love
of God as the beloved
Father, Mother, Child,
Friend or whichever
relationship or personal
aspect of God that finds
appeal in the devotee's
heart. Bhakti incorporates
a number of universal
principles, also common
in other world religions.
Raja
yoga,
the yoga of meditation
" Establishing a
firm seat for himself
in a clean place... having
directed his mind to a
single object, with his
thought and the activity
of the senses controlled,
he should practice yoga
for the purpose of self-realization.
Holding the body, head
and neck erect, motionless
and steady, gazing at
the tip of his own nose
and not looking in any
direction, with quieted
mind, banishing fear,
established in the brahmacharin
vow of celibacy, controlling
the mind, with thoughts
fixed on Me, he should
sit, concentrated, devoted
to Me. Thus, continually
disciplining himself,
the yogin whose mind is
subdued goes to nirvana,
to supreme peace, to union
with Me."concept
of rajayoga
Raja-Yoga
is so called because
it constitutes a 'royal
road' to happiness and
fulfilment. The mind
is traditionally conceived
as the 'king' of the
psycho-physical structure
which does it's bidding
(whether or not one
has realised this).
Because of the relationship
between the mind and
the body, the body must
be first 'tamed' through
self-discipline. A certain
level of purity and
integration should be
attained before the
deeper aspects of yoga
can be pursued. Humans
have all sorts of addictions
and obsessions and these
preclude the attainment
of tranquil abiding.
Through restraint such
as celibacy, abstaining
from drugs and alcohol
and careful attention
to one's actions of
body, speech and mind,
which is an integral
part of the Natya Yoga
process, the human being
becomes fit to practise
meditation. This yoke
that one puts upon oneself
is the meaning of yoga.
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Pranayama
is most widely known as the
fourth 'limb' of the eight
limbs of Raja Yoga taught
in the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali.
Patanjali refers to pranayama
as the control of life force
that comes as a result of
practicing the various breathing
techniques, rather than the
numerous breathing exercises
themselves Many yoga teachers
advise that pranayama should
be part of an overall practice
that includes the other limbs
of Patanjali's Raja Yoga teachings,
especially Yama, Niyama, and
Asana
Yoga
and Tantra
Yoga is often
mentioned in company with Tantra,
and it is true that these traditions
have influenced one another
over time. They are both families
of spiritual texts, practices,
and lineages with origins in
the Indian subcontinent and
both have been popularized in
the West.
Tantra has
roots in the first millennium,
and incorporates Shiva and
Shakti worship. It focuses
on the kundalini, a three
and a half-coiled 'snake'
of spiritual energy at the
base of the spine that rises
through chakras until union
('samadhi') between Shiva
and Shakti is ultimately achieved.
These concepts were formally
introduced into yoga with
the Hatha Yoga Pradipika,
and because of the subsequent
popularity of Hatha Yoga,
many Hindu and western yoga
teachers now accept these
essentially tantric concepts
within the yogic philosophy,
and this is the most obvious
major intersection between
tantra and yoga today. The
acceptance of tantric kundalini
teachings into modern yoga
was reinforced by the New
Age movement which accompanied
(and fed into) the rise of
popularity of yoga in the
West.
However,
Tantra and Yoga have notable
points of difference. Where
body consciousness is seen
as the root cause of bondage
in Yoga, Tantra views the
body as a means to understanding,
rather than as an obstruction,
which bears certain similarities
with the Natya Yoga. As a
result, in India particularly,
one of the two branches of
Tantra often carries quite
negative connotations involving
sexual misbehavior and black
magic, although it must be
said most forms actually follow
quite mainstream social mores
and this is simply an expression
of prejudice.
The actual
method of Tantra is quite
different to traditional Raja
Yoga. It emphasises mantra
(Sanskrit prayers, often to
gods, that are repeated),
yantra (complex symbols representing
gods in various forms through
intricate geometric figures),
and rituals that range from
simple murti (statue representations
of deities) or image worship
to meditation on a corpse.
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| Quotes |
"Prana
is a subtle invisible force.
It is the life-force that
pervades the body. It is the
factor that connects the body
and the mind, because it is
connected on one side with
the body and on the other
side with the mind. It is
the connecting link between
the body and the mind. The
body and the mind have no
direct connection. They are
connected through Prana only
and this Prana is different
from the breathing you have
in your physical body."
— Swami Chidananda Saraswati"
"Yoga
works primarily with the energy
in the body, through the science
of pranayama, or energy-control.
Prana means also ‘breath.’
Yoga teaches how, through
breath-control, to still the
mind and attain higher states
of awareness. The higher teachings
of yoga take one beyond techniques,
and show the yogi, or yoga
practitioner, how to direct
his concentration in such
a way as not only to harmonize
human with divine consciousness,
but to merge his consciousness
in the Infinite." —
Paramahansa Yogananda"
"The
essence of the Prana is activity.
It is the Prana that makes
the heart beat, the lungs
function and the stomach secrete
juices. Hence, neither breathing
nor lung-function ceases till
death. The Prana never goes
to sleep, just as the heart
never stops beating. The Prana
is regarded as the watchman
of the body." —
Swami Krishnanada" |
Meditation
in yoga
The
term Meditation describes
a variety of practices with
a variety of goals. It usually
involves turning the attention
inward to the mind itself.
Meditation is often recognized
as a component of Eastern
religions, having originated
Vedic Hinduism. It has also
become mainstream in Western
culture. It encompasses any
of a wide variety of spiritual
practices which emphasize
mental activity or quiescence.
Meditation can be used for
personal development, or to
focus the mind on God. Many
practice meditation in order
to achieve peace, while others
practice certain physical
yogas in order to become healthier.
Yoga
Philosophy
Yoga
has been called a science
or technology of liberation.
This is because, unlike purely
theoretical philosophies,
yoga seeks to provide the
student with a practical path
(or indeed many possible paths)
towards the common goal of
liberation. As explained above,
Yoga is a diverse tradition,
which makes it quite difficult
to provide a concise summary
of the philosophy. One approach
is to consider common elements
that are found in all (or
nearly all) branches of the
tradition.
Within
othodox Hindu philosophy there
are six schools (astika) that
recognise Vedic authority,
of which Yoga is one. These
schools are traditionally
placed into three complimentary
pairs - Yoga being paired
with Samkhya, which is the
oldest of the orthodox philosophical
systems in Hinduism. The Samkhya
school has deeply influenced
the Hindu Yoga school of philosophy.
Samkhya philosophy regards
the universe as consisting
of two eternal realities:
Purusha and Prakrti; it is
therefore a strongly dualist
and enumerationist philosophy.
The Purusha is the centre
of consciousness, whereas
the Prakriti is the source
of all material existence.
Sage Kapila is traditionally
considered to be the founder
of the Samkhya school, although
no historical verification
is possible. The definitive
text of classical Samkhya
is the extant Samkhya Karika,
written by Ishvara Krishna,
circa 200 CE.
Returning
to the practical side, the
first step for any potential
student (shishya or chela)
of yoga is to find a suitable
teacher. Traditionally, this
relationship would be with
a guru - who is seen as an
embodiment of the Divine -
and would involve a relatively
full-time committment to study,
often involving manual service
to the guru as a form of payment
for instruction. A guru may
also found an ashram or order
of monks. Many gurus write
modern translations and elucidations
of classical texts, explaining
how their particular teachings
should be followed. In practice,
the modern western student
is much more likely to attend
a local yoga course and receive
instruction from a teacher
who are themselves practicing
the style of a particular
school founded by a guru.
It is often a mark of accomplishment
and authenticity if a yoga
teacher can demonstrate their
close link to a guru with
a strong lineage.
In
all branches of yoga, the
ultimate goal is the attainment
of liberation from worldly
suffering and the cycle of
birth and death (Samsara).
Yoga entails mastery over
the body, mind, and emotional
self, and transcendence of
desire. It is said to lead
gradually to knowledge of
the true nature of reality.
The Yogi reaches the enlightened
state (Moksha) where there
is a cessation of thought
and an experience of blissful
union. This union may be of
the individual soul (Atman)
with the supreme Reality (Brahman),
as in Vedanta philosophy;
or with a specific god or
goddess, as in theistic forms
of Hinduism and some forms
of Buddhism. Enlightenment
may also be described as cessation
of mental fluctuations (citta-nirodha)
accompanied by extinction
of the limited ego, and direct
and lasting perception of
the non-dual nature of the
universe.
Common
to most forms of yoga is the
practice of concentration
(dharana) and meditation (dhyana).
Dharana, according to Patanjali's
definition, is the "binding
of consciousness to a single
point." The awareness
is concentrated on a fine
point of sensation (such as
that of the breath entering
and leaving the nostrils).
Sustained single-pointed concentration
gradually leads to meditation
(dhyana), in which the inner
faculties are able to expand
and merge with something vast.
Meditators sometimes report
feelings of peace, joy, and
oneness.
The
focus of meditation may differ
from school to school, e.g.
meditation on one of the chakras,
such as the heart center (anahata)
or the 'third eye' (ajna);
or meditation on a particular
deity, such as Krishna; or
on a quality like peace. Non-dualist
schools such as Advaita Vedanta
may stress meditation on the
Supreme with no form or qualities
(Nirguna Brahman). This resembles
Buddhist meditation on the
Void. |
Yoga
and Buddhism |
It
is quite likely that Buddha
(Siddhartha Gautama), who
is estimated to have lived
563 to 483 BC, actually studied
what was known of yoga at
that time as part of his extensive
education in Hindu philosophy.
It is also very likely, given
the rapid growth of Buddhism
after his death and before
the Bhagavad Gita and Patanjali's
Yoga Sutras were composed,
that Buddhism had some influence
on those works.
In
either case, there is a considerable
overlap between the Hindu
yoga tradition and Buddhism.
Of particular interest is
a comparison of the Buddhist
eight-fold path and the eight
limbs of Patanjali's Yoga.
Their moral precepts (the
sila of Buddhism, the yama
and niyama of yoga) share
the Hindu principle of non-violence
(ahimsa); their final steps
point towards a common goal
- 6. Buddhist Samma Vayama
(Effort) vs Yogic Dharana
(Concentration), 7. Buddhist
Samma Sati (Mindfulness) vs
Yogic Dhyana (Meditation)
and 8. Buddhist Samma Samadhi
vs Yogic Samadhi. In relation
to views of the Self, yoga's
asmita-samapatti is designed
to eradicate the wrong views
on the Self much in the same
way Buddha did it in Anatta-lakkhana-sutta.
Yoga
is central to Tibetan Buddhism.
In the Nyingma tradition,
practicioners progress to
increasingly profound levels
of yoga, starting with Maha
yoga, continuing to Anu yoga
and ultimately undertaking
the highest practice, Ati
yoga. In the Sarma traditions,
the Annutara yoga class is
equivalent. Other tantra yoga
practices include a system
of 108 bodily postures practiced
with breath and heart rhythm
timing in movement exercises
is known as Trul khor or union
of moon and sun (channel)
prajna energies, and the body
postures of Tibetan ancient
yogis are depicted on the
walls of the Dalai Lama's
summer temple of Lukhang. |
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